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An Assessment of the Expected Impacts of City-Level Parking Cash-Out and Commuter Benefits Ordinances

Appendix E. Results by City

The impacts of each scenario on travel are shown for each city below. In addition, the tables in this appendix show the impacts of vehicle trip and mile reductions on pollution emissions (carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter), congestion (vehicle hours of delay), and combined fatal and incapacitating injury crashes. VMT percentage reduction estimates presented in this section reflect citywide impacts (i.e., the overall reductions on all commute VMT); impacts for affected commuters only (applicable for Scenario 1 and Scenario 2) were displayed in Table 14. Changes in raw VMT (and subsequent congestion, emissions, and safety impacts) are presented based on the “most likely” 2x pre-pandemic telework rate post-pandemic scenario. Annual figures were derived by scaling daily estimates to annual ones, assuming 19 working days each month. All raw estimates have been rounded36 and, even still, are subject to uncertainty given the sketch-level nature of this analysis.

BOSTON AND CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSSETTS

The travel impacts of each scenario on commute trips in Boston and Cambridge compared to citywide VMT are summarized in Table 19.

Table 19. Impacts on citywide all commuter VMT in Boston and Cambridge.
VMT Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Baseline daily commute VMT 9.9M 9.9M 9.9M 9.9M 9.9M 9.9M 9.9M
Change in daily commute VMT -1.0M -0.1M -1.0M -1.8M -2.8M -0.8M -0.8M
Percentage VMT change -10% -1% -10% -18% -29% -8% -8%

VMT = vehicle miles traveled. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

The impacts of the change in commute travel on congestion, emissions, and safety are summarized in Table 20.

Table 20. Impacts on congestion, emissions, and safety in Boston and Cambridge.
Congestion, Emissions, or Safety Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Vehicle hours of delay reduced annually 0.5M 0.1M 0.6M 1.0M 1.7M 0.4M 0.5M
CO2e reduced (MT/year) 80k 10k 90k 150k 250k 70k 70k
NOx reduced (MT/year) 90 10 100 170 280 80 80
PM-2.5 reduced (MT/year) 3 <1 3 5 9 2 2
Fatal and incapacitating injury crashes reduced annually 4 1 5 8 13 4 4

CO2e = carbon dioxide equivalents. MT = metric tons. NOx = oxides of nitrogen. PM-2.5 = fine particulate matter. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

The travel impacts of each scenario on commute trips in Chicago compared to citywide VMT are summarized in table 21.

Table 21. Impacts on citywide all commuter VMT in Chicago.
VMT Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Baseline daily commute VMT 18.6M 18.6M 18.6M 18.6M 18.6M 18.6M 18.6M
Change in daily commute VMT -2.0M -1.3M -2.4M -3.3M -6.6M -1.3M -1.5M
Percentage VMT change -11% -7% -13% -18% -36% -7% -8%

VMT = vehicle miles traveled. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

The impacts of the change in commute travel on congestion, emissions, and safety are summarized in table 22.

Table 22. Impacts on congestion, emissions, and safety in Chicago.
Congestion, Emissions, or Safety Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Vehicle hours of delay reduced annually 1.3M 0.8M 1.5M 2.2M 4.4M 0.8M 0.9M
CO2e reduced (MT/year) 180k 120k 210k 300k 590k 120k 130k
NOx reduced (MT/year) 200 130 240 340 660 130 150
PM-2.5 reduced (MT/year) 6 4 7 10 20 4 4
Fatal and incapacitating injury crashes reduced annually 6 4 7 10 20 4 4

CO2e = carbon dioxide equivalents. MT = metric tons. NOx = oxides of nitrogen. PM-2.5 = fine particulate matter. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

HOUSTON, TEXAS

The travel impacts of each scenario on commute trips in Houston compared to citywide VMT are summarized in table 23.

Table 23. Impacts on citywide all commuter VMT in Houston.
VMT Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Baseline daily commute VMT 59.7M 59.7M 59.7M 59.7M 59.7M 59.7M 59.7M
Change in daily commute VMT -1.7M -1.2M -1.8M -4.1M -10.4M -1.1M -1.1M
Percentage VMT change -3% -2% -3% -7% -17% -2% -2%

VMT = vehicle miles traveled. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

The impacts of the change in commute travel on congestion, emissions, and safety are summarized in table 24.

Table 24. Impacts on congestion, emissions, and safety in Houston.
Congestion, Emissions, or Safety Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Vehicle hours of delay reduced annually 1.1M 0.7M 1.1M 2.6M 6.7M 0.7M 0.7M
CO2e reduced (MT/year) 150k 100k 160k 370k 940k 96k 99k
NOx reduced (MT/year) 180 120 180 430 1090 110 120
PM-2.5 reduced (MT/year) 3 2 3 7 18 2 2
Fatal and incapacitating injury crashes reduced annually 6 4 6 13 34 3 4

CO2e = carbon dioxide equivalents. MT = metric tons. NOx = oxides of nitrogen. PM-2.5 = fine particulate matter. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA

The travel impacts of each scenario on commute trips in Indianapolis compared to citywide VMT are summarized in table 25.

Table 25. Impacts on citywide all commuter VMT in Indianapolis.
VMT Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Baseline daily commute VMT 10.8M 10.8M 10.8M 10.8M 10.8M 10.8M 10.8M
Change in daily commute VMT -0.6M -0.3M -06M -1.6M -2.6M -0.4M -0.4M
Percentage VMT change -5% -2% -5% -15% -24% -4% -4%

VMT = vehicle miles traveled. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

The impacts of the change in commute travel on congestion, emissions, and safety are summarized in table 26.

Table 26. Impacts on congestion, emissions, and safety in Indianapolis.
Congestion, Emissions, or Safety Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Vehicle hours of delay reduced annually 0.2M 0.1M 0.2M 0.5M 0.8M 0.1M 0.1M
CO2e reduced (MT/year) 50k 20k 50k 140k 220k 30k 30k
NOx reduced (MT/year) 70 30 70 200 320 50 50
PM-2.5 reduced (MT/year) 2 1 2 4 7 1 1
Fatal and incapacitating injury crashes reduced annually 1 1 1 3 5 1 1

CO2e = carbon dioxide equivalents. MT = metric tons. NOx = oxides of nitrogen. PM-2.5 = fine particulate matter. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA

The travel impacts of each scenario on commute trips in Los Angeles compared to citywide VMT are summarized in table 27.

Table 27. Impacts on citywide all commuter VMT in Los Angeles.
VMT Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Baseline daily commute VMT 40.5M 40.5M 40.5M 40.5M 40.5M 40.5M 40.5M
Change in daily commute VMT -3.5M -2.2M -3.5M -6.8M -10.8M -2.1M -2.2M
Percentage VMT change -9% -5% -9% -17% -27% -5% -5%

VMT = vehicle miles traveled. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

The impacts of the change in commute travel on congestion, emissions, and safety are summarized in table 28.

Table 28. Impacts on congestion, emissions, and safety in Los Angeles.
Congestion, Emissions, or Safety Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Vehicle hours of delay reduced annually 2.0M 1.2M 2.0M 3.9M 6.3M 1.2M 1.2M
CO2e reduced (MT/year) 310k 200k 320k 610k 970k 190k 200k
NOx reduced (MT/year) 330 210 340 650 1030 200 210
PM-2.5 reduced (MT/year) 6 4 6 12 19 4 4
Fatal and incapacitating injury crashes reduced annually 8 5 8 16 25 5 5

CO2e = carbon dioxide equivalents. MT = metric tons. NOx = oxides of nitrogen. PM-2.5 = fine particulate matter. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

NEW YORK, NEW YORK

The travel impacts of each scenario on commute trips in New York City compared to citywide VMT are summarized in table 29.

Table 29. Impacts on citywide all commuter VMT in New York City.
VMT Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Baseline daily commute VMT 35.3M 35.3M 35.3M 35.3M 35.3M 35.3M 35.3M
Change in daily commute VMT -1.2M -0.4M -3.7M -4.3M -12.6M -1.0M -2.3M
Percentage VMT change -3% -1% -11% -12% -36% -3% -7%

VMT = vehicle miles traveled. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

The impacts of the change in commute travel on congestion, emissions, and safety are summarized in table 30.

Table 30. Impacts on congestion, emissions, and safety in New York City.
Congestion, Emissions, or Safety Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Vehicle hours of delay reduced annually 0.5M 0.2M 1.7M 1.9M 5.9M 0.4M 1.0M
CO2e reduced (MT/year) 100k 40k 330k 380k 1,120k 90k 210k
NOx reduced (MT/year) 110 40 370 420 1240 100 230
PM-2.5 reduced (MT/year) 3 1 10 12 34 3 6
Fatal and incapacitating injury crashes reduced annually 3 1 8 9 28 2 5

CO2e = carbon dioxide equivalents. MT = metric tons. NOx = oxides of nitrogen. PM-2.5 = fine particulate matter. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA

The travel impacts of each scenario on commute trips in New York City compared to citywide VMT are summarized in table 31.

Table 31. Impacts on citywide all commuter VMT in Philadelphia.
VMT Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Baseline daily commute VMT 12.7M 12.7M 12.7M 12.7M 12.7M 12.7M 12.7M
Change in daily commute VMT -1.6M -1.2M -1.8M -2.7M -4.3M -1.0M -1.1M
Percentage VMT change -13% -9% -14% -21% -34% -8% -9%

VMT = vehicle miles traveled. SOV = single occupancy vehicle

The impacts of the change in commute travel on congestion, emissions, and safety are summarized in table 32.

Table 32. Impacts on congestion, emissions, and safety in Philadelphia.
Congestion, Emissions, or Safety Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Vehicle hours of delay reduced annually 0.9M 0.6M 1.0M 1.5M 2.5M 0.6M 0.6M
CO2e reduced (MT/year) 140k 100k 160k 240k 380k 90k 100k
NOx reduced (MT/year) 160 120 180 270 430 100 110
PM-2.5 reduced (MT/year) 4 3 4 7 11 3 3
Fatal and incapacitating injury crashes reduced annually 5 3 5 8 13 3 3

CO2e = carbon dioxide equivalents. MT = metric tons. NOx = oxides of nitrogen. PM-2.5 = fine particulate matter.

SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA

The travel impacts of each scenario on commute trips in San Diego compared to citywide VMT are summarized in table 33.

Table 33. Impacts on citywide all commuter VMT in San Diego.
VMT Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Baseline daily commute VMT 19.6M 19.6M 19.6M 19.6M 19.6M 19.6M 19.6M
Change in daily commute VMT -1.1M -0.6M -1.1M -3.0M -4.8M -0.7 -0.7M
Percentage VMT change -6% -3% -6% -15% -25% -4% -4%

VMT = vehicle miles traveled. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

The impacts of the change in commute travel on congestion, emissions, and safety are summarized in table 34.

Table 34. Impacts on congestion, emissions, and safety in San Diego.
Congestion, Emissions, or Safety Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Vehicle hours of delay reduced annually 0.4M 0.2M 0.4M 1.1M 1.8M 0.2M 0.3M
CO2e reduced (MT/year) 100k 50k 100k 260k 420k 60k 60k
NOx reduced (MT/year) 100 60 100 270 430 60 60
PM-2.5 reduced (MT/year) 2 1 2 6 9 1 1
Fatal and incapacitating injury crashes reduced annually 3 1 3 7 11 2 2

CO2e = carbon dioxide equivalents. MT = metric tons. NOx = oxides of nitrogen. PM-2.5 = fine particulate matter. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

WASHINGTON, D.C.

The travel impacts of each scenario on commute trips in Washington, D.C., compared to citywide VMT are summarized in table 35.

Table 35. Impacts on Citywide All Commuter VMT in Washington, D.C.
VMT Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Baseline daily commute VMT 10.7M 10.7M 10.7M 10.7M 10.7M 10.7M 10.7M
Change in daily commute VMT -0.5M -0.2M -0.6M -1.2M -2.6M -0.4M -0.5M
Percentage VMT change -4% -2% -6% -11% -24% -4% -4%

VMT = vehicle miles traveled. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

The impacts of the change in commute travel on congestion, emissions, and safety are summarized in table 36.

Table 36. Impacts on congestion, emissions, and safety in Washington, D.C.
Congestion, Emissions, or Safety Result S1: Monthly Cash-Out S2: Monthly Commuter Benefit S3: Monthly Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit 4: Daily Cash-Out + Pre-Tax Transit Benefit S5: Eliminate Parking Subsidies + $5 Non-SOV Subsidy S1A: S1 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers S3A: S3 + Extension to Exempt Small Employers
Vehicle hours of delay reduced annually 0.3M 0.1M 0.4M 0.8M 1.8M 0.3M 0.3M
CO2e reduced (MT/year) 40k 20k 50k 100k 230k 30k 40k
Nox reduced (MT/year) 50 20 60 120 260 40 50
PM-2.5 reduced (MT/year) 1 <1 2 3 6 1 1
Fatal and incapacitating injury crashes reduced annually 1 <1 1 3 6 1 1

CO2e = carbon dioxide equivalents. MT = metric tons. NOx = oxides of nitrogen. PM-2.5 = fine particulate matter. SOV = single occupancy vehicle.

36 Based on the magnitude of values, VMT and annual hours of delay estimates are rounded to the nearest one-hundred thousand; CO2e estimates are rounded to the nearest ten-thousand; NOx estimates are rounded to the nearest ten; PM2.5 and crash estimates are rounded to the nearest one. Decisions on where to round are solely based on the magnitude of the estimates as a way to reflect uncertainty; that is, estimates rounded to the nearest one or ten should not be interpreted as having a higher degree of accuracy than those rounded to the nearest one-hundred thousand. [ Return to Note 36 ]